{"id":2199,"date":"2026-07-31T18:05:56","date_gmt":"2026-07-31T18:05:56","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/classics-courses-syllabi\/galileo-and-humanism-lecture\/"},"modified":"2026-07-31T18:05:56","modified_gmt":"2026-07-31T18:05:56","slug":"galileo-and-humanism-lecture","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/classics-courses-syllabi\/galileo-and-humanism-lecture\/","title":{"rendered":"Galileo and Humanism Lecture"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t
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Galileo\nStudy Guide<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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by\nDr. Janice Siegel<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Galileo’s\n Tomb
\n Location: Florence, Italy
\n Photo courtesy of Kathy Peters<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Monument\n to Copernicus
\n location: near Logan Circle, Philadelphia
\n Janice Siegel<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Up until Galileo\u2019s\ntime, people believed in the geocentric (earth in the middle) cosmological view\n(the composition of the universe).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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pre-Socratic\nphilosophers (6th century BC) had already determined that the\nuniverse was composed of four elements: air, fire, water and earth.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Aristotle (384-322 BC):\njoined Plato’s Academy at age 17. Became tutor of Alexander in 343 BC. The\ngreatest collector and organizer of knowledge in the ancient world. Aristotle’s\nUniverse: universe is finite and spherical, with stationary earth at center. Two\nsets of rules: one for earth, one for the heavenly bodies.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Earth: composed of four\nelements fire and air (light and move upward) and earth and water (heavy, fall\ndownwards). The Earth is in the center of all things, where heavy things fall\nto. Aristotle’s scientific proof that the earth is a sphere: its curved shadow\non the face of the moon in eclipse; the sight of stars not seen before when one\ntravels north or south.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Heavens: composed of aether<\/b>\n– not subject to decay, immortal – just look at the perfect circular motion of\ncelestial bodies – immutable, no beginning, no limit. Aether<\/b> is outside\nour gritty experience and reality. (All of these suppositions will be disproven\nby Galileo and Kepler). Two different sets of physics laws governs the heavens\nand the earth. By the way, this fifth elements of aether<\/b> is how the word quintessence<\/b>\ncame to be \u2013 the “true, immortal\u00a0 nature” of something \u2013 its\ncore substance (quintus<\/b> means “fifth” in Latin).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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According to Aristotle,\nthe cosmos<\/b> (universe) was a group of concentric spheres, a series of\nballs within balls each having the same center. Imagine a gigantic lucite ball\nwith interior balls. The innermost ball, of course, is the earth (made of dirt).\nThe other celestial orbs are all embedded in Crystalline spheres which\nrevolve around the unmoving earth. <\/b>You may recall that the pre-Socratic\nphilosopher Pythagoras (530 BC) suggested that the universe worked according to\nmathematical principles (and boy, was he right. Just ask NASA). The ancients\nknew of seven planets (Neptune and Pluto cannot be seen with the naked eye) and\nwe recall that Pythagoras (530 BC) invented the seven-tone scale (do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti-do).\nThe Music of the Spheres<\/b> is said to ring out clear as a bell when all\nthese crystalline spheres are in perfect harmony and aligned just right (the Age\nof Aquarius?) Anyway, each orb is embedded in its sphere. Here is the order of\nthe celestial bodies revolving around the earth from nearest to farthest orbit:\nmoon, Mercury, Venus, sun, the outer planets and last, the fixed stars. The\nancients believed that all the stars of the night sky were as if white dots\npainted on black velvet and each night the black velvet backdrop rotated in an\narc while the earth stayed motionless (well, they do<\/i> all move in tandem,\nor together \u2013 just watch the constellations move across the sky in groups).\nBeyond the sphere of the fixed stars lay the “empyrean<\/b>“, the\nhome of angels and immortal spirits. So much for science!<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Points in Favor: it\ncertainly seems<\/i> to work. If you stand in a field all day long from before\nsunrise, you will observe that the sun rises<\/b> in the east, moves across\nthe sky, and sets<\/b> in the west and the earth doesn\u2019t move at all. Right?\nThe earth can\u2019t<\/i> move, or it would leave things behind, like birds and\nbaseballs. So for 1600 years, everyone accepted this cosmological theory\nalthough it is WRONG! because THE SUN IS IN THE MIDDLE \u2013 THAT\u2019S WHY WE\nCALL IT THE SOLAR SYSTEM<\/b><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Archimedes (287-212 BC)\nmight have figured out the problem here, but practical applications of\nscientific theory were only allowed for military and agricultural purposes.\nGalileo notes him over 100 times in his writings.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Ptolemy (100-170 AD):\nduring time of Hadrian’s rule – encouraged learning. Rejected rotation of earth\nbecause objects (like birds) would be left behind. His work, called The\nAlmagest, was written in 150 AD and is the greatest surviving astronomical work\nof antiquity. Ptolemy adopted Aristotle\u2019s model but replaced Aristotle’s\nspheres with a system of geometric devices (equant, epicycle…) that explained\nthe apparent motions in the heavens. (The crystalline sphere theory was rejected\nwhen they realized that comets come into the solar system at an angle and would\nhave to break through these spheres. That’s how they figured out that there\nreally aren’t solid objects up there in which the planets are enmbedded.)\nPtolemy’s work was the canonical work (the absolute last word) on cosmology for\n14 centuries until Copernicus.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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MEDIEVAL EUROPE: after\nthe fall of Rome, only Latin texts survived in the Western World (not Greek),\nalthough Plato influenced the early Christian fathers (like St. Augustine). But\nthey were rediscovered by the Arab World and translated into Arabic and read\nwidely. (For example, Ptolemy\u2019s work is translated into Al-majisti<\/i>). In\nthe 9th century both Greek and Hindu scientific works were translated\ninto Arabic (including Ptolemy’s Almagest). Scholars popularized\n“Arabic” numbers (actually they were Hindu), and adopted the decimal\nsystem and the concept of zero. Classical learning followed in the wake of\nIslamic conquests that swept across North Africa then into Spain. Intellectual\nfreedom encouraged the interaction of Islamic, Jewish, and Christian thought.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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During the 12th\ncentury, the ideas of Aristotle, through the influence of the pantheistic Arab\nphilosopher Averroes, infiltrated the universities of Christendom. By the 13th\ncentury, the complete works of Aristotle were translated into Latin.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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The Church moved\nquickly. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) got the very difficult job of\nsynthesizing Aristotelian natural philosophy with Christian theology, a\nrevolution of religious thought.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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In other words, he had\nto make Christian thought (using the Scripture as source) jive with the older\npagan understanding of the world which was taking European learning centers by\nstorm. And he was brilliant at it. Christianity theology<\/b> teaches by\ndivine revelation \u2013 Greek philosophy<\/b> puts all its stock in human\nwisdom. Aquinas concluded that the two were compatible.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Greek natural philosophy\nhad concluded that the earth was (a) in the middle of the universe and (b) that\nit was composed of different material than the rest of the universe. Aquinas\nagreed completely, but for very different reasons. Aquinas concluded that when\nGod made the universe, it was absolutely perfect in every respect. His greatest\nachievement \u2013 man \u2013 He placed in the center, like a jewel in a crown \u2013\nbecause He was so proud of it. But man screwed up. Because of the Fall (Adam and\nEve eating the fruit of the tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil as told in\nGenesis 2), man sullied or dirtied the earth and everything else he touched.\nThat is why the earth is dirty and heavy now. It used to be perfect like\neverything else. But everything else \u2013 all other celestial bodies \u2013 remain\npristine, untouched by human hands and therefore still perfect as God made them.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Aquinas therefore\nsuccessfully merged Greek natural philosophy and Christian theology. The only\nproblem was that both are based on an incorrect premise \u2013 they are wrong. And\nonce scientific discoveries began showing that the earth was NOT in the middle,\nthe Church panicked because they had so carefully intertwined their theological\ndoctrine with that cosmological model that it was like a giant JENGA game \u2013 if\nyou took that one piece out, the entire construction would come crashing down.\nTherefore, they made it heresy (a crime against the teachings of the church) to\nsay that the sun was in the middle of the solar system, and not the earth.\nEventually, of course, scientific discoveries would prove the earlier theory\nwrong, but not without casualties.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Steps toward the TRUTH:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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COPERNICUS (1473-1543) :\nBecause the findings of Copernicus\u2019 text went against Church doctrine, his\npublisher went behind Copernicus\u2019 back to downplay his theory, putting a\nspecial foreword in his book that caused most people to ignore the findings.\n(Most ironic is that Copernicus made his discoveries while working for the\nChurch – he was trying to fix the calendar). In On The Revolutions of the\nHeavenly Orbs<\/i>, Copernicus offers a theory based on mathematical\ndemonstration, that the sun was at the center of the solar system and fixed\nstars, and that the earth was one of the planets revolving in space around IT.\nThis suggestion of a heliocentric cosmological model <\/b>(sun in the middle)\nhelped to fix one of the worst problems associated with the Polemic model: more\nand more observations were being made about the movement of the celestial bodies\n(anything up in the sky) and more and more details weren\u2019t being accommodated\nby the old model.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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For example: retrograde\nmotion<\/b>. You see this every day, either in your car or on the subway. When\ntwo objects running parallel to each other match in speed, object B appears to\nhave no speed relative to object A. In other words, if you look out the car\nwindow, you can see the next lane\u2019s car\u2019s hubcap STOP SPINNING. It looks \u2013\nfor a moment \u2013 like the wheel isn\u2019t moving at all. But then you speed ahead\nand his wheel STARTS MOVING BACKWARDS! Of course, it is not really<\/i> moving\nbackwards, but from your perspective it seems to be because your speed is\ngreater than his. Well, the same thing happens with planets. Today we know that\nMars and Earth have concentric (sharing the same center) orbits. We move in the\nsame direction around the sun, but at different speeds because our orbit is\nshorter than Mars. Mars is visible with the naked eye, and you can easily track\nits movement in the evening sky. If you do track the movement of Mars, you will\nnote that for a set number of days, Mars will appear to move ever so slightly\nacross the sky, but then for a few days will appear in the same place, and then\nit will appear to move backwards<\/i>. Of course, it isn\u2019t REALLY moving\nbackwards, any more than the car on the highway is, but from our perspective<\/i>\nit APPEARS to be moving backwards. This makes sense to us only because we know\nthat Mars and Earth are both moving. Imagine trying to make sense out of the\nhubcap that stops spinning in mid-turn if you think that you are standing on the\nsidewalk! The ancients (and all the way up to Galileo) thought that the Earth\nwas in the MIDDLE and DIDN\u2019T MOVE, so they couldn\u2019t explain this retrograde\nmotion<\/b> at all. They added loop-de-loops called epicycles<\/b> on the\nmapping charts, desperately trying to account for this odd planetary behavior.\nThis caused John Milton to describe the cosmos as “with centric and\nconcentric scribbled o’er\/, cycle and epicycle, orb in orb.”<\/i> The\nproblem? The EARTH IS NOT IN THE MIDDLE!<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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But Copernicus <\/b>removed\nthe sun from the category of planets. Now he could argue \u2013 rightly \u2013 that\neach orb was its own center, and that in each orbit all the heavy things fell\ntoward that center. This new system also allowed him to figure the distance from\nthe sun of various planets, based on the time it took them to complete their\nrevolution around it.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601):\nnever accepted Copernican theory but gained more info about positions and\nmovements of heavenly bodies. He took very detailed records of starry\nobservations that would help Kepler later…<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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JOHANN KEPLER\n(1571-1630): student of Brahe – accepted Copernicus’ theory. Kepler discovered\nthat the planets’ orbits around the sun were ellipses, not perfect circles.\nExplained why some planets took a shorter time to make their circuit. All math:\nthe square of the time is proportional to the cube of the distance.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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GALILEO: (1564-1642):\nfirst person to train a telescope on the heavens (1609). He was thus the first\nto realize that these “orbs” and “points of light” were\nsubstantial objects. In “The Starry Messenger” he describes his\nobservations.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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One of the problems\nGalileo solved was how to explain how the earth could move and not leave its\nmoon behind. This was one of the biggest arguments against scientific acceptance\nof the “moving earth” theory. In “The Starry Messenger,”\nGalileo observes the moons of Jupiter, which he names the Medicean Stars<\/b>\nto honor Cosimo de Medici. He plots the movement of the moons and concludes that\nthey move along with the planet, which everyone agrees does move across the sky.\nIf Jupiter can move and not lose its many moons, then Earth should have no\nproblem keeping hold of our one Moon. Galileo also observed the moon through his\ntelescope (he didn\u2019t invent the telescope, but he was the first to train it on\nthe heavens). He noticed that the moon, always thought to be perfectly spherical\nand without blemish, was in fact pock-marked and much like earth in many ways\n\u2013 it had mountains, valleys, rugged surface\u2026 and Galileo proved that it was\nnot a luminous object \u2013 it reflected<\/i> light, not produced it, as\neveryone thought.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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So why does Galileo get\nin trouble with the Church?<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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1. He agrees with the\nidea that the earth moves, instead of staying motionless in the center and\nletting other things revolve around it (like the Church says)<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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2. He compares the moon\nto the earth several times (the moon has mountains and valleys, or when he\nrefers to a particular spot on the surface as being “about the size of\nBohemia.”). Church doctrine forbids any comparison between the dirty,\nsullied earth and the pristine and perfect heavenly bodies.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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3. He usually wrote in\nItalian, not Latin, in order to reach the general populace. But Galileo wrote Sidereus\nNuntius<\/em> (“The Starry Messenger”)in Latin in order to inform the\nscientific public of his observations and conclusions. The church feared the\ndissemination of such knowledge.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Details of Galileo\u2019s\ntrial:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Era: during the papacy\nof Pope Urban VIII.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Date: June 22, 1633.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Place: Santa Maria Sopra\nMinerva, Dominican convent in center of Rome (ironically, in a church originally\ndedicated to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom.)<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Cause: G’s publication\nof Dialogue on the Two Principal World Systems<\/i> in which he has characters\nargue the relative merits of Ptolemaic (Aristotelian) and Copernican\ncosmologies. The character arguing the Ptolemaic system comes out looking\nignorant.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Defense: Although\nGalileo had made the debater of the Church philosophy look positively stupid in\nhis book, he claimed that in fact that it was that argument he was in agreement\nwith. This was not a smart move and insulted his inquisitors.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Verdict:\n“vehemently suspected of heresy”; Dialogue<\/i> to be banned.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Sentence: sort of\nprobation – must repeat the penitential psalms once a week for three years –\nreturned home to Florence within five months and eventually went blind and died\nafter nine years of house arrest. Galileo would eventually be absolved by the\nChurch – in 1992!<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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in 1636, Galileo writes\nhis famous letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, wherein he makes an eloquent\nargument FOR Church doctrine. In his letter he suggests that Aquinas is\nabsolutely right – that both the scriptures AND science must come to the same\nconclusions about the universe and God’s plan. If the two do not seem to agree,\nGalileo says, then the fault lies with those who have misinterpreted the\nScripture. Because everything has to add up in the end.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW\nABOUT GALILEO FOR THE EXAMINATION:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Be able to explain in\nfull:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Aristotelian\n(Ptolemaic) cosmological model
\nCopernican cosmological model<\/b><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Medicean Stars<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Possible essay: Why\nexactly does Galileo get in trouble? Be able to distinguish between Christian\ntheology (as put forth by St. Thomas Aquinas) and Greek natural philosophy (as\nput forth mostly by Aristotle). Are they really reconcilable? Irreconcilable?\nThink about this. Can science and religion work together to unravel the\nmysteries of the universe? This question cannot be answered “yes” or\n“no” but I expect you to put some thought into it.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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for a tour of the\nGalileo Room of the History of Science in Florence (including a peek at\nGalileo’s middle finger from his right hand – no kidding), go to:
\nhttp:\/\/galileo.imss.firenze.it\/museo\/4\/index.html<\/a><\/b><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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for a very\ninformative website on Galileo, including an elaborate timeline:<\/b>
\nhttp:\/\/es.rice.edu\/ES\/humsoc\/Galileo\/galileo_timeline.html<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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and for really cool\npictures of the solar system (with a small section on our man):
\nhttp:\/\/www.hawastsoc.org\/solar\/<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Take the Galileo\nquiz<\/a> (put out by a publishing house hawking a Galileo book for the\nuninformed – warning! It’s Hard!)<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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top<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":2167,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-2199","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/2199","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2199"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/2199\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/2167"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.hsc.edu\/drjclassics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2199"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}